Introduction

Agriculturally based food products are fundamental to human survival, serving as a cornerstone of nutrition and sustenance. The rapid increase in global population has intensified pressure on agricultural food systems, highlighting the crucial role of nutrition as a basic human requirement. Projections indicate that by 2050, food production must double compared to 2000 levels, while using the same amount of land and reducing water and other resource inputs¹. Technological advancement is accelerating exponentially, with some forecasts predicting a 400 per cent increase in disruptive technologies over the next five years, making biotechnology a key industry to monitor². Agricultural biotechnology encompasses plant tissue culture (PTC), applied microbiology, and applied molecular biology, all contributing to the production of crops with enhanced food, feed, fiber, and fuel qualities.

The concept of cell culture, first proposed by the German botanist Gotthilf Haberlandt in 1902, laid the groundwork for plant tissue culture (PTC), which has now become an integral tool in crop improvement programs³. Over the past decades, PTC technique has successfully evolved from a theoretical concept to widespread commercial application. This transition has led to remarkable growth within the industry, with PTC generating substantial revenues. This success is evidenced by the widespread adoption and implementation of PTC techniques in various agricultural sectors, leading to improved crop production and substantial economic benefits. For nearly four decades, various crops have been routinely propagated using tissue culture techniques and traded both domestically and internationally⁴. As a powerful method for mass production, PTC has become essential in the nursery and farming industry, driving the second green revolution in our country. This review article discusses the growth of the PTC industry in India, its impact on market demands, business potential, and the challenges it faces. Extensive global research in this field has significantly impacted agriculture and related industries, providing high-quality plants necessary to meet the escalating global demand.

Micropropagation, a tissue culture technique that enables the propagation of genetically identical plants under in vitro conditions, has been extensively utilized to meet the increasing demand for elite planting material in the current century. There is a substantial need for superior-quality, disease-free plants across ornamental, horticultural, floricultural, and agro-forestry sectors, which are critical components of agriculture^5,6. This demand has been effectively met through the micropropagation of economically viable plants, successfully translating technological advancements into commercial applications.

Over the past three to four decades, a new industry based on this technology has emerged globally, particularly in India, evolving into a multi-million-dollar enterprise⁷. In India alone, approximately 200 commercial plant tissue culture units operate with a combined production capacity of around 500 million plantlets per annum. The Indian plant tissue culture market is estimated at Rs 500 crore⁸. With a minimum production capacity of about 1 million plants per industrial unit per year for various prioritized species like banana, grapes, pineapple, strawberry, sapota, sugarcane, potato, turmeric, ginger, vanilla, cardamom, aloe, geranium, stevia, patchouli, neem, gerbera, carnation, anthurium, lily, syngonium, cymbidium, teak, teak, bamboo, eucalyptus and populus, the Indian industry produces approximately 350 million plants annually⁹.

The demand for micropropagated plants continues to rise, as conventional propagation methods often fail to meet the required quantities and can be cumbersome. Among the major players, 20 companies produce 5 to 10 million plants per year, while numerous smaller firms focus on single species such as banana, gerbera and bamboo, with production ranging from 0.2 to 0.5 million plants. Key consumers of tissue culture plants include State Agriculture and Horticulture Departments, Agri Export Zones (AEZs), floriculturists and farmers. It has observed that the installed production capacity is not fully utilized, with only 50-60% typically being operational⁹.

Beyond industrial scale technological advancements, further investigation is necessary to address the gap in technology adoption among farmers. Developing comprehensive marketing strategies is essential to minimize losses during the hardening and post-hardening phases of plant production¹⁰. In India, the majority of tissue culture industries concentrate on banana plant production^11,12. Besides, banana micropropagation eliminates the disease invasion, caused by pest and pathogens and ultimately increases the mass-production, which is significantly essential in commercial aspects. It has been noticed that banana production is declined by 30%-50% by the devastating pathogens such as fusarium wilt, bunchy top virus, and the black sigatoka¹³.  Recent study reported that incorporating the appropriate concentration of plant growth regulators, and explant sterilization leads to improvement in banana cultivation with elimination of disease severity¹⁴. Therefore, it is crucial to examine current consumption patterns between farmers and industries at a pilot level. Indeed, it is the need of an hour to develop transgenic banana which is having resistant source that will ultimately boost the banana production for the augmenting population. The primary objective of this article is to identify the challenges associated with tissue culture in banana cultivation, exploring future advancement in banana micropropagation, and understand the dynamics of related industries and propose potential solutions for mutual benefit of farmers and industry. 

Materials and Methods

This investigation utilized a systematic survey approach to collect quantitative data through interactions with various stakeholders, including individual farmers and contact farmers at district and state levels. Additionally, data were gathered from financial managers and industry personnel affiliated with recognized laboratories across several states in India during the 2022-23 period. Also, critical challenges were assessed during banana cultivation using tissue culture approaches such as micropropagation.

The initial phase of data collection focused on Vaishali district in Bihar, located in the eastern region of the Indo-Gangetic plain, with geographical coordinates of latitude 25° 45′ 0” N and longitude 85° 25′ 0.012 E. This district was strategically selected due to its significant area for dedicated to banana cultivation, where both tissue culture bananas and sucker bananas are predominantly grown. Data were gathered from personnel associated with the District Agriculture and Horticulture Departments in Dighi Kalan, Hajipur, as well as the Krishi Vigyan Kendra located at Satihara Chowk, Hariharpur, Hajipur, District Vaishali, and Rajendra Prasad Central Agriculture University (RPCAU) in Pusa, District Samastipur.

Following interactions with various stakeholders, including financial managers and industry personnel, obstacles encountered at the interface between farmers and the industry were identified. Data collection involved computer-assisted telephonic interviews (CATI) with personnel from recognized laboratories, utilizing structured canvassing questionnaires to ensure comprehensive data acquisition. Data analysis using both tabular and functional approaches was adopted. Tabular analysis focused on key aspects such as resource cultivation, production levels, profitability, and farmers perception regarding challenges in production and marketing. Simple statistical tools, including averages and percentages, were employed to interpret the results effectively. 

Results and Discussion 

Bananas Production and Productivity

Bananas (Musa spp.) are crops of significant importance in developing countries, serving both subsistence living and as a substantial source of economic growth, income, food security and nutrition^15,16. Globally bananas rank as the fifth-largest agricultural commodity by production (following sugarcane, rice, grapes, and citrus fruits) cultivated in more than 134 countries, with an annual production of 145 million tons^17,18.

Bananas Production in India

According to FAO estimates, India occupies the largest area dedicated to banana cultivation, about 11 per cent of the total global area under banana production contributing approximately 23 per cent to the worldwide banana production pool^18,19. For the past decade, India has maintained its position as the largest banana producer globally, and currently contributes 19.37% of the world’s banana production, yielding > 33 million tons from an area of 9.24 lakh hectares²⁰. These bananas are cultivated across various regions ranging from humid tropics to humid subtropics and semi-arid tropics, up to an elevation of 1,500 m above sea level, including Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Odisha (Table 1). The national average productivity is 38.25 tons per hectare, with Gujarat recording the highest at 66 tons per hectare, followed by Maharashtra at 58.2 tons per hectare, and Tamil Nadu at 47.9 tons per hectare²¹.

In India, germplasm of nearly 500 accessions have been assembled by the ICAR-National Research Centre for Banana, Tiruchirappali, Tamil Nadu and approximately 50 distinct varieties are cultivated commercially^21,22. Among these, only the Cavendish groups constitute the mainstay for Indian farmers due to their high yield, widespread market acceptability, short crop duration, and high economic returns per unit area^23,24.

The increase in production is attributed not only to the expansion of cultivation areas but also to enhanced productivity per unit area. This boost in productivity has been achieved through the use of tissue culture (TC) plants of high-yielding superior varieties, along with integrated nutrient and water management, high-density planting, and other good agricultural practices^17,20. While specific varieties such as Rasthali (Silk), Poovan (Mysore), Ney Poovan, Thella Chakkarakeli, Karpuravalli (Pisang Awak), Nendran (French Plantain), Hill Banana (Pome-AAB), and Monthan (Cooking banana) are grown extensively in different regions, the Indian banana trade predominantly relies on Cavendish clones²⁵. These clones are known by various names across regions, including Robusta, Grand Naine, Basrai, Harichal, Shrimanthi, Bhusaval, and Pedda Pacha Arati. Cavendish clones account for 52% of the total area under banana cultivation and contribute 64% of the total banana production¹⁹.

The demand for bananas is projected to continually increase, with an estimated requirement of 50 million tons to meet domestic demand by 2050²⁶ . Additionally, there is a significant potential for export of banana and its products, further boosting demand. To achieve the production target of 50 million tons by 2050, several major constraints must be addressed, including the need for high-quality planting material, rising input costs of fertilizers, irrigation and management of insect pests and diseases^27,16,28.

Table 1: Per hectare cultivation of sucker and tissue culture-raised plantlets in India. 

Source  APAARI 2019, FAO 2020 and NHB 2022

Role of TC Bananas in India

Tissue culture-raised plantlets are crucial in overcoming the production challenges in bananas as they offer numerous advantages over conventional suckers. They exhibit higher field establishment rate, uniform growth, synchronized harvesting, early maturity, superior fruit quality, increased production, and other favorable yield-related parameters. Tissue culture-derived plantlets have demonstrated a yield of 63.44 t/ha, representing a remarkable 39.43 per cent increase compared to the conventional sucker grown crop (45.50 t/ha). Consequently, crop cultivated with tissue culture plantlets exhibited a higher benefit-cost ratio of 2.25 compared to 1.65 for crops grown with conventional suckers^{9,18,19,,24,29,30,31}.

In India 0.7574 million ha land is utilized by farmers for banana cultivation across 15 States. Among these, Tamil Nadu ranks first with 0.13 million hectares, followed by Karnataka with 0.11 million hectares, and Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra with 0.08 million hectares each. Goa contributes the smallest area, with only 0.002 million hectares (Table 1). Cultivation of bananas is not profitable in 14 states of the country, including the North-eastern states, due to geographical barriers. With the recommended planting density of 3,000 banana plants per ha, it has been estimated that approximately 2,272 million plants are grown annually^32,19,33. As the present majority Indian farmer uses 70-90% conventional planting materials such as sucker and 10-30% tissue culture raised plantlets in various states across the country (Table1). It indicates clearly that the use of tissue-cultured plantlets is lower than the banana sucker. For instance, banana cultivation can be impeded by manifesting suitable protocol for micropropagation using appropriate plant-growth hormones concentration, suitable concentration of explant sterilization^13,14. This will not only surpass the pathogen invasion issues but also enhance the banana production.

India ventured into field of commercial tissue culture in 1987, with the establishment of a modern export oriented commercial plant tissue culture by A.V. Thomas and Co, a well-known plantation company of Kerala, located in Cochin⁹. Currently, the Government of India has recognized 99 tissue culture units, with a combined capacity of 187 million banana plants per annum (Table 2). In addition to these recognized labs, 100 smaller units are also operational to meet the huge demands for production³⁴.

In India, some 14 varieties exhibit marketing potential for tissue culture and can be made accessible to farmers. Nevertheless, a notable concern is the predominant focus of the majority of companies on the Grand Naine (also known as G9) variety. Despite the vast potential of more than 2,000 million of tissue culture grown plants of banana in India, there is a need to encourage Indian farmers to adopt this technology. This, in turn, depends on sufficient well-equipped tissue culture industry and a certification program to ensure the availability of healthy planting material^35,36.

Table 2: Production of banana plants from recognized tissue culture laboratories in India.

* List of recognized commercial Tissue Culture Production Units by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Govt. of India under the “National Certification System for Tissue Culture Raised Plants (NCS-TCP)”.

** Production per year has been calculated on the basis of the information available on individual company production data.

Impediments in TC Banana Production

The majority of the tissue culture units in the country catering to both the domestic and interstate market are confined to only four states: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Telangana and Karnataka. Other states remain untapped for the potential of TC banana due to challenges such as climatic disadvantage, lack of infrastructure and non-conducive policies^35,24. States such as Bihar, Assam, and Goa, where banana production relies on traditional farming methods, face a lack of well-developed infrastructural support for tissue culture-based industries, creates a significant gap between farmers and the industry (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: State wise cultivation of banana plants and production of tissue culture banana plantlets Click here to view Figure

Indian industries currently lack sufficient access to primary markets. It has been observed that market estimation exercises conducted before establishing business lose relevance when plantlets are ready after post-harvesting, transportation, and storage. In the market, farmers do not place long-term orders, leading to uncertainty in production planning for the industry. Post-hardening loss is another major constraint in the sector, which could be minimized by establishing tissue culture industries uniformly according to the demands of various states across the country (Fig.1). States such as Assam, Bihar, and Goa, have untapped market potential and should be targeted in a more planned manner (Fig.1). The rigidity and illiteracy among Indian farmers pose additional challenges for the industry in convincing them of the economic advantages and genetic fidelity of tissue culture-raised plants³⁷.

Another significant challenge faced by the industry is the presence of middlemen who primarily benefit from the marketing of the plants^38,39,40. To tap into the vast potential market size of more than 2,200 million of plant per annum, extensive networking of channels, market development and improved post-harvest handling, storage, transport and certification are essential throughout the country²⁷. In efforts to promote tissue culture and distribute plant materials to farmers, state and district horticulture boards have established partnerships with industries. However, due to a lack of proper planning, they have been unable to supply the plants to farmers effectively. Concurrently, small-scale farmers, due to a lack of adequate information, are not receiving tissue culture planting materials and are unable to purchase or prebook plants well in advance.

It is crucial to note that secondary hardened plants, being living materials, cannot be stored in the greenhouse for extended periods due to limited nutrients in pots and space. Consequently, the plants may suffer from nutrient deficiencies, leading to adverse consequences such as stunted growth and eventual death. Furthermore, individuals functioning as middleman between the government and industries become key beneficiaries of such collaborations, exploiting existing policy gaps for monetary gain. This situation underscores the need for a more comprehensive and transparent policy framework to ensure fair and equitable benefits for all stakeholders involved in the tissue culture industry.

The study also reveals that the horticulture department procures greenhouses from the company to sustain plant life; however, farmers do not get benefit from this initiative due to inadequate extension services, resulting in the deterioration of the greenhouse and plant spoilage due to a lack of maintenance. In India, tissue culture industry, represents, to a certain extent, the transformation of the traditional economy into a modern one. Therefore, there is a need to educate Indian farmers through extension activities to optimize the utilization of their available land for banana cultivation. This includes obtaining the best possible rates through government subsidies, promoting overall prosperity of the farmer through the adoption modern technology^39-45. 

Conclusion and Future Perspective

Based on present study, it can be concluded that there is a need to motivate the Indian farmers across the country regarding the diversity, quality and economic significance of tissue culture raised plants to adopt method from traditional modes of farming to the modern technology. Furthermore, it is proposed that the establishment of regional translational collaborative centers to conduct pre-production target analysis, aim to minimize the post-harvest losses of Indian tissue culture industries should be promoted to address the challenges faced in lab – to – land programs.

In addition, microbial-pathogen attacks drastically reduce crop yield and production. Global food security and the rising food demands to meet for the augmenting populations are critical concerns in agricultural sector, which can be significantly minimized by using micropropagation. However, it is essential to develop a rapid and cost-effective protocol that selectively eliminates the tissue hardening and destructive pathogen invasion during banana cultivation. These efforts will also reduce the banana import from other countries that will further helpful for economic growth and encourage farmers to cultivate banana.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank off. HOI, Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, for their guidance.

Funding Sources

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of Interest

The authors do not have any conflict of interest.

Data Availability Statement

This statement does not apply to this article.

Ethics Statement

This research did not involve human participants, animal subjects, or any material that requires ethical approval.

Informed Consent Statement

This study did not involve human participants, and therefore, informed consent was not required.

Authors’ Contribution 

Rajeev Kumar : Conceived the idea, Designed investigation and Wrote the manuscript.

Anshuman Shah : Analyzed results and Contributed to writing the manuscript,

Ravi Kant Singh, Abhinav Kumar Srivastava and Udai Pratap Singh : Data curation,

Anuradha Agarwal: Analyzed results and Contributed in providing constructive feedback.

All authors have reviewed and approved the manuscript.

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